Basic colours in Tanii

Every language has its own way of defining and classifying colours, whose number can vary widely. But every language has got between 2 and 12 terms which are considered 'basic' or 'elementary'.

• English language has 11 : yellow, green, blue, brown, purple, red, pink, orange, black, white, and grey.
  

• Tanii seems to have 8 : yellow (pilan), green (salyi) grue (jiji), red (lanchan), pink (lamu-layu), orange (pyamin/tormin), white (pulu), black (ji) and grey (mubu).

Different variations or shades of the same colour are distinguished for some of them, especially by means of compound words. Thus lanchan-lankho for red or vermillon (lit. 'intense, very red'), lanchan koman for crimson or carmine red (lit. 'dark red'), salyi koman for dark green, pilan-pisan for yellowish, etc. Among other words used for expressing shades of yellow colour are pilan kamo (lit. 'dark yellow', possibly yellow-earth) and pilan-lanku-lamu (meaning unknown)
Below are displayed the various colours and shades in Tanii according to our present knowledge :

• Mubu is a descriptive colour words, it is primarily used to refer to ashes from fire, but secondarily used to denote ashy colour, or grey. This is a feature shared by many Asian languages such as, for eg., Japanese.

• Jiji has a meaning that covers both blue and green, depending on the situation. Compare for eg. :

yapun hii jijido => the sky is blue.

anii hii jijido => the leaf is green.

anii hii salyido => the leaf is green.

In this context, both the sky and tree leaves are jiji, although Tanii language does have separate terms for blue and green, jiji and salyi. This is also a typical feature of many East and Southeast Asian languages such as Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai, etc. and, of course languages of the Tani family (Tanii, Adi, Nyishi, Tagin, Miri, Mishing, etc.). Linguists have coined the specific term “grue” (from "blue" and "green"), to describe the range of colours covered by such terms. Thus, jiji would be more accurately referred as "grue" color, not only blue.

Specific colours, or hues, are reserved for animals, such as dorlan (from dor, classifier for quadrupeds and lan, red) which denotes a brown, reddish hue for animal furs, sii talan (apparently a brownish-orange hue for cows), tapu (white, fair color), or tagyo (spotted ?). Human complexions also bear specific names, such as for eg. piikhe for dark complexion. There must be specific colours for certain textiles, dyes, beads... For eg. we don't know the name of this turquoise blue found on some beads which were originally brought from Tibet.

Do you know other color names which are not listed here ? Please help us to collect them all.

Basic colors
Color names

Apatani war dresses of olden days - 2 : headgears

The Apatanis used helmet-like caps called byopa that fitted close onto the head and protected it during combat. These are made of cane and have a bowl shape, except for a protruding appendice rolled at the back of the cap. According to Pura Tado*, this part is said to imitate the shape of an ear of a siidin (barking deer, Muntiacus muntjac).

A Tanii byopa

Byopa used by Taniis are very similar to cane headgears worn neighbouring Nyishis and Miris, and it is still unclear whether Taniis used to make their own caps or simply bartered them from their neighbours as they did for many other products. Fürer-Haimendorf (1980 : 62) reports that the Apatanis were in the habit of exchanging cloths and daos for cane belts, cane hats and fibre rain-cloaks. Probably this was because cane was more easily accessible to Nyishis and Miris than it was to Taniis.

As a matter of fact, only minor differences are found between Tanii byopa and Nyishi bopa :

• * Both are decorated with a twisted cane rope running lengthwise in the middle part. For the Nyishi bopa it ends in a loop at the front side, and this loop is inserted in the hair-knot (podum) or over it, so that it holds firmly onto the head. Sometimes also the front part of the hat becomes encapsulated into the knot. Tanii hair-knots (piidin) being usually smaller they are inadequate for this purpose, and the cane rope is attached to the cap as a mere decoration (see above picture).

Nyishi bopa attached to podum.

Source : Verrier Elwin photo collection

• * Both are trimmed with bird tail feathers set up horizontally at the top of the cap towards the back. Favourite species among Taniis are eagles, buzzards and hawks [pamu, pari, still unidentified but possibly Northern Harrier (Circus cyaneus), Indian Black Eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis) or shikra (accipiter badius)]. Also red jungle fowl (parii-parsin, gallus gallus) and racket-tailed drongo (Dicrurus paradiseus, Dicrurus remifer) whose beautiful pairs of tail feathers embellish the cap. A distinctive ornament much prized by Nyishis is the upper beak of hornbill species (Buceros bicornis, Aceros nipalensis), often red-dyed, which is fastened in the front side of the cap. It is not unknown among Taniis, but they use them only occasionally. The reason of this difference lies in the sociological meaning of this ornament, which is different for each society. Hornbill regalia seems to be a sign of higher status among Nyishis - but not among Taniis - and for that reason some of the beaks found on Nyishi hats are conspicuously decorated.

Red-dyed hornbill beak decorating a Nyishi bopa

• 

Ornamented hornbill beak protruding over the cap (Nyishi)

• Tail feathers of the Greater racket-tailed drongo (Dicrurus paradiseus) hanging from a Nyishi bopa.
  

• * Both Tanii and Nyishi headgears are often trimmed with the talon of a bird of prey, probably obtained from the same above mentioned species.

Talon of a bird of prey trimmed on the back portion of cane hats from Nyishi (left) and Tanii (right)






A special version of the Tanii cane headgear is rendered waterproof by adjunction of tama amu (see previous post). Tufts of the outer bark of this plant are incorporated into the basketry, which for that purpose is made coarser. Today, Tanii byopa have ceased to be used for hunting, but are still occasionally worn during war related rituals such as ropi.


*Pura Tado, "War Dresses and Weapons of the Apa Taniis", in S. Dutta and B. Tripathy, Martial Traditions of North East India, New Delhi : Concept Pub., 2006, pp.220-227.

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war dresses of olden days

headgears

Apatani war dresses of olden days - 1 : body armours

Altogether with shields, war dresses contitute defensive weapons aimed at preventing warriors from being injured by daos, arrows or spears. A distinctive feature of Tanii war dresses is the fact that they are mostly made of plants. Four accessories are considered here. Headgears will be treated in a separate post.

1. Lecha is a kind of body protection of cane matting worn in the back like a haversack. The cane basketry is mounted with fur-like substance derived from a particular tree, known as tama amu. This yet unidentified plant species resembles a palm tree or a giant fern and is found in the sub-montane forest zone. The fibers or 'hair' (amu) are probably extracted from the outer bark of the tree. Tulfts are incorporated one by one into the basketry during the manufacturing process, making this back protection look like a black cloak.

Tanii lecha. Source Ahin Sajain on Flickr







In olden days lecha were used not only for war but also for hunting, as the fibre coating makes them waterproof. By covering the back of the body they offered a complementary protection to the shield during combat. According to one previous comment from Buru "a sword cut to the back is harmlessly absorbed, though less so for a spear and no protection from an arrow."







Lecha worn by Tanii are very similar to those of Nyishis (left), and it is still unclear whether they were self-made or simply bartered from their neighbours. Fürer-Haimendorf reports that the Apatanis were in the habit of exchanging locally produced daos and cloths for fibre rain-cloaks from Nyishis and Miris (1980 : 62).

Nowadays lecha are rarely seen being used as rain shields during jungle trips, but they continue to serve during war-related rituals such as for eg. ropi.

Nyishi cloak (for comparison). Source : Verrier Elwin digitalized collection, Smithsonian Institute

2. Tanned mithun or buffalo hides were fastened around the chest and offered an efficient protection from the armpit to the groin known as hupo. Similar artifacts were used by Nyishis.

3. A large cane belt or cane matted ring (hurin), designed to protect the viscera, was put on the waist and offered additional protection. The use of this accessory has been totally abandoned nowadays, although very similar cane rings are still occasionally worn by Nyishi or Miri elderly men.

Source : Verrier Elwin digitalized collection, Smithsonian Institute

4. The so-called "tails" (ahu), which attracted much attention from the first outsiders in the late 19th century, may also have had a practical function in protecting the genital organs during combat. They consist of strands of cane strips dyed in red, loosely fastened together and bent into a loop. This "tail" was set on a loin-belt (yari) that was fastened around the waist. Nowadays ahu-yari are only occasionally worn by performers during certain important rituals.

Source : Christa Neuenhofer's photobase

In addition, Pura Tado* mentions the use of two textiles as body protections which I am unable to confirm. One is a muffler (lampru) made of Tibetan wool designed for protecting the neck. Another is jilya pulye, a coarse silk coat which, according to the author, was "so strong that the pointed or sharp-edged weapons hardly penetrate it".

*Pura Tado, "War Dresses and Weapons of the Apa Taniis", in S. Dutta and B. Tripathy, Martial Traditions of North East India, New Delhi : Concept Pub., 2006, pp.220-227.

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traditional weapons

body armours

Apatani weapons of olden days - 4 : shields

The shield (siitin) is the only defensive weapon of the Taniis. It is rectangular in shape, traditionally made of several layers of mithun or buffalo hide. After being well tanned the skins are stretched together over a bamboo framework and tied with cane. By their form as well as the materials used, Tanii shields differ from both Tibetan shields (which were invariably round) and the Indo-Persian circular convex shields (circular with four domed bosses) commonly found in the Brahmaputra Valley. They share more affinities with shields found for eg. in Nagaland and Mizoram. Unlike Naga and Mizo shields however, shields made of strong bamboo matting seem to be absent, as well as ornamentations such as brass discs or tufts of animal's hair.

A strap made of plaited cane is fixed in the back, as also a cane hand-grip set in the upper right corner.

The strap is looped over the right shoulder and the shield hands at the body left side, covering and protecting it. The hand-grip located in the upper right corner allow the left hand to hold the shield firmly, while the right hand is free and can hold a spear or a sword.

Today shields are occasionally used in several rituals related to war. The presence of one siitin in the house is also said to represent the menfolk of the household.

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olden weapons

shield

Apatani weapons of olden days - 3 : bow and arrows

Along with spears, bows constitute the only projectile weapons traditionally used by Taniis, as guns were unknown in this part of the Himalayas prior to the advent of the Indian administration.

Tanii bows are plain bamboo bows, with no stock. The whole bow is called alyi; the string is called lyiha (from alyi, bow, and aha, string). Whether there is a specific word in Tanii to denote the stave is not known, nor is known which bamboo variety is considered most suitable for making staves. The stave is a simple bamboo section, the inside of the bamboo making the convex side. Two notches are made at the ends to receive the string. Strings are ostensibly made of twisted cane fibre, although this has yet to be confirmed. The string is attached to the two ends of the bow stave by a knot.

Arrows (apii/apu) are of 2 types :

• - bamboo-tipped arrow, unbarbed. It consists of a rounded shaft with a pointed tip, having no separate head.

• - iron-headed bamboo arrow. The head has a barbed iron point (apu-putu). Plant fibers (pyarmo) are used to fasten the iron tip onto the shaft. Possibly these are identical to fibers known as tama-amu used for making waterproof coatings.

All arrows are feathered with finely cut leaf fletches (murto) for regulating their direction. Again, it is still unclear which of these two plant species, tama amu or pyarmo, is used for making fletches, but pyarmo fibers are used to tie the fletches onto the arrow shaft. At the end of the shaft butt a notch is made to receive the bow string. The iron heads are sometimes poisoned with aconite (iimyo, Aconitum ferox). The plant is made into a paste which is applied on arrow tips.


The arrows are carried in a quiver (age) made of a hollow bamboo, suspended over the right shoulder by a sling of plaited cane. The quiver is fitted with a cane lid also attached to the sling by means of plaited cane (left).

In shooting, the stave is gripped by the left hand and held in an oblique manner, and the quiver hangs under the left shoulder so that arrows can be picked up easily with the right hand. The usual mode for shooting an arrow is to allow it to run between the first and second fingers, while the butt end of the arrow is held betwen the thumb and first finger. Tanii archers use cane rings known as lake or lyiha-lako covering all four fingers of the hand. According to Pura Tado*, this helps grip the arrow tightly. Possibly it may also function as a kind of trigger, as well as a protection for fingers. The left wrist is protected from being hurt by the bow string by means of a wristband (lahii). According to the author it is traditionally made of long human hair which are collected and made into yarn by spinning, then "artistically made into a thick rope with some symetrical designs" (2006 : 223).

In olden days bows and arrows were used both for war and for hunting. It seems that they were also employed in inter village disputes among Taniis, including those gyambo sonii or 'demonstrations of war', by which two clans or villages could challenge each other openly in a conventional manner. However, according to Fürer-Haimendorf, as a rule they were confined to long-distance arrow shooting, as was also bamboo spear throwing. The same author also reports that it was an arrow who killed the victim of the last Apatani gyambo sonii having opposed Tajang and Reru in 1972 (some information on this event can be found here).

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traditional archery

bow and arrows

Apatani weapons of olden days - 2 : spears

Along with the dao (or sword) and the bow, the spear (adan/iidan) was the chief weapon of offence of Taniis in the old days. The shaft is made of a long whittled pole of a dry and hard wood called tailan (a species yet to be identified). Some are quite short, only around 1,5 meter long, but other are said to be as long as 2.30 meters. Longer types are called iidan-danso ('long spear') or simply danso. Shafts are kept over the hearth for several months before being assembled. Tanii spears are found with plain shafts only. Hair-tuft decorations, which are a common feature of Naga ceremonial spears, are unseen among them. Iron butt caps also seem to be absent.

The Tanii spear head is leaf-shaped socketed iron head, without barbs. The blade ends in a long tang into which the shaft is inserted. It is made out of a single piece of iron whose shape resembles an isocele triangle. The 2 lower ends are simply folded and rounded up whereas the top part is left flattened (see picture). This way a socket is shaped to receive the shaft which is fitted into it. Whether a glue or lac is inserted into it before the head is rammed down onto the shaft is not known.

Tanii spears were always carried to war. They could be either thrown or be used as defensive weapons in close combat, but it is still unclear whether hurling or thrusting was the commonest mode of use. Pura Tado* mentions a special type, punyan, also made of the same wood, which according to him was used to skewer enemies through walls or fortifications.

A special type of bamboo spear (hulyu) was used in intervillage disputes only, as such spears were less likely to inflict serious wounds to opponents. According to Pura Tado* during combats children and women brought them to the men who hurled them towards their enemies.

a Tanii veteran demonstrating spear handling technique. Photo source unknown

*Pura Tado, "War Dresses and Weapons of the Apa Taniis", in S. Dutta and B. Tripathy, Martial Traditions of North East India, New Delhi : Concept Pub., 2006, pp.220-227.

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olden weapons

spear

Apatani weapons of olden days - 1 : daos and swords

Wars and feuds among Taniis, or between Taniis and their neighbours, seem to be a thing of the past. However, old weapons and war dresses are still found in many homes, not only as relics of the past but also as items used during certain rituals and collective ceremonies. Among those are cutting blade weapons, i.e. daos and swords.

Common dao : The Tanii ordinary machete (ilyo) is not a weapon proper, although it could be carried to war or serve as a defensive weapon. This multi-purpose dao is mostly used in daily life. The blade is straight, widens from the hilt to the tip, has a square end, and a single sharpened edge. The blade is fitted into a simple wooden handle (lyoli, kortu) which is tightly bound with cane (today more often white plastic threads). This handle is without a hand guard. Scabbards (hubyu) can be :

1. - closed scabbards, made from two wooden strips that are bound together with cane. The most usual binding is thin plaited cane strips (tarin) at intervals along the sheath.
   
2. - open-faced scabbards, locally called takhe hubyu. They are made of a long, flat piece of carved wood which is hollowed out on one face for the blade. Here, the blade is held in place only by the cane bands.

A strap (aha) made of plaited cane is attached to the scabbard.

An ordinary ilyo and its closed scabbard. On this picture, the single edged blade
is illustrated edge up. A knife and sheath of similar workmanship are also visible

Ilyo is used for every kind of work : cutting and slicing bamboos, cutting up meat, chopping firewood, building houses, reconstructing lapang, ... Iron used to be imported from Assam, and forged by local blacksmiths. In olden days, according to Fürer-Haimendorf locally produced daos and knives "were also articles of trade, and on their trading visits to villages of Nyishis and Miris Apa Tanis usually carried with them dao and knives to be used as exchange goods" (1980 : 62). Ilyo were mostly bartered for agricultural products, cane, or domestic animals. Pura Tado* mentions a better quality type of ilyo known as pare sala, which is said to be much costlier and is rarely seen nowadays.

Using ilyo for making altar ornaments (some, or jompu)

Ceremonial sword : A longer, slimmer sword version known as chiri seems to have been used in olden days for combat. It was originally imported from Tibet, not directly but through barter with neighbouring Nyishis, some of whom were in direct contact with Tibetans. Those located in the Sarli and Damin area of the upper belt of Kurung Kumey District know several passes to cross the Himalayan barrier and were in the habit of trading regularly with the Tibetans. Among the most sought for artifacts of such barter deals were Tibetan swords, whom the Nyishi of this area call sala.

Size and shape differences between ilyo (left) and chiri (right)

Apart from being more elongated and usually lighter, the blade also bears distinctive stripes lengthwise. These are quite similar to stripes found on Tibetan swords. Scabbards can be of both types, open and closed Nyishi scabbards which are commonly covered with monkey furs (the skin of the caped langur is said to be prized for that), scabbards of Tanii chiri are usually plain. Unlike Tibetan, Nyishi and Adi swords also, Tanii swords don't have any hand guard.

The end of a chiri handle is ordinarily capped with a square-shaped piece of metal

Handle differences between ilyo (left) and chiri (right)

Cane straps of the most expensive chiri are covered with cowries (tahin). Interestingly, this highly valued shell, so commonly found on traditional cloths and ornaments in the highlands of North East India, is used among Taniis for this unique purpose of decorating chiri belts



Source : Ahin Sajain

A feline lower jawbone (ahi hipin) is often attached to the straps of ceremonial swords. This is a feature not only shared by various cultures of Arunachal Pradesh, but also those of Nagaland and northern Burma (2 examples are visible from this link)

Apparently this sword was carried to war, but it has always been a ceremonial as well as a practical weapon. Nyibus are invariably seen carrying a chiri during important rituals. Veteran warriors used to jump brandishing their chiri around the clan altar (nago) into which the monkey skull was kept during Myoko, and today's perfomers continue to do so. Participants to ropi ritual performed after the hunting of some big cat (formerly also after the killing of enemies and culprits) also carry their chiri. Most importantly, chiri were, and are still considered today as precious items. As such, they play a key role in the customary settlement of disputes where they, along with mithuns, serve as compensations for offenses and prejudices. Chiri is also among those valuables destroyed in front of the opponent's house during that form of contest known as yalu, or yalu lisunii, by which individuals may seek to resolve unsettled disputes. Pura Tado* reports 3 types of chiri, viz. hulu, sha and pinji, the two latter being more costly than the first type.

*Pura Tado, "War Dresses and Weapons of the Apa Taniis", in S. Dutta and B. Tripathy, Martial Traditions of North East India, New Delhi : Concept Pub., 2006, pp.220-227.

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Apatani weapons

daos and swords